assertion letters（日新录（8月31日    小雨））

本文目录

• 日新录（8月31日    小雨）
• 跪求美国作家马克 吐温的英文介绍
• An essay about Walt Whitman
• Linux Make问题

日新录（8月31日    小雨）

Chapter 2: The Neoclassical Period
General Introduction
1. Duration:

      Neoclassical period is the one in English literature between the return of Stuarts to the English throne in 1660 and the full assertion of Romanticism which came with  the publication of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge in 1798. It’s in fact a turbulent period.

2. Political Background: The marking events:

The restoration of Charles II in 1660

The Glorious Revolution in 1689

Constant strife between the monarch and the parliament

Constant strife between big parties—the Tories and Whigs

Constant strife between ruling class and the laboring poor

Constant strife between religious sects, such as the Roman Catholicism and protestants (church of England)

The eighteenth century saw the fast development of England as a nation.

3. Social Background:

      The eighteenth century saw the fast development of England as a nation. Abroad, a vast expansion of British colonies in North America, India, the West Indies, and a continuous increase of colonial wealth and trade provided England with a market for which the small-scale hand production methods of the home industry were hardly adequate, towards the middle of the eighteenth century; England had become the first powerful capitalist country in the world. The British bourgeois or middle class also grew rapidly. It was the major force of the Revolution and was mainly composed of city people. The British bourgeois or middle class believed in self-reliance, self- restraint and hard work.

The marking events:

Industrial revolution

A vast expansion of British colonies

A continuous increase of colonial wealth

4. Cultural Background:(Enlightenment)

The 18th-century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.

Definition: The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in France & swept through the whole Western Europe at the time. The movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th & 16th centuries.

Function:

      Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical & artistic ideas.

      The enlighteners celebrated reason or rationality, equality & science.

      They called for a reference to order, reason & rules & advocated universal education.

      Famous among the great enlighteners in England were those great writers like John Dryden, Alexander pope & so on.

      In the field of literature, the Enlightenment Movement brought about a revival of interest in the old classical works. This tendency is known as neoclassicism.

5. Viewpoints on literature:

According to the neoclassicists:

1All forms of literature were to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers (Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, etc.)

2They believed that the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy,

3Literature should be judged in terms of its service to humanity. This belief led them to seek proportion, unity, harmony and grace in literary expressions,

4In an effort to delight, instruct and correct human beings, primarily as social animals. Thus a polite urbane, witty, and intellectual art developed.

6. Fixed laws and rule on literature: Neoclassicists had some fixed laws and rules for almost every genre of literature.

1Prose should be precise, direct, smooth and flexible.

2Poetry should be lyrical, epical, didactic, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by its own principles.

3Drama should be written in the Heroic Couplets.

7. The literature forms and streams during this period:

      In the last few decades of the 18th century however, the neoclassical emphasis upon reason, intellect, wit and form was rebelled against or challenged by Sentimentalists, and was, in due time, gradually replaced by Romanticism.
      The neoclassical period witnessed the flourishing of English poetry in the classical style from Restoration to about the second half of the century, climaxing with John Dryden, Alexander Pope and the last bearer of the school, Samuel Johnson.

      The middle of 18th century was, however, predominated by a newly rising literary form ---- the modern English novel, which, contrary to the traditional romance, gives a realistic presentation of life of common English people.

8. Gothic novels:

      Gothic novels are mostly stories of mystery and horror which take place in some haunted or dilapidated Middle Class castles. They appeared from the middle part of the 18th century and were turned out profusely by male and female writers.

      During this period, Richard Brinsley Sheridan was the leading figure among a host of playwrights.

      And of the witty and satiric prose, those written by Jonathan Swift are worth studying, and his A Modest Proposal is generally regarded as the best model of the satire.
The typical authors during this period
I. Daniel Defoe
1. Daniel Defoe’s major works:

(Daniel Defoe’s) His works are the first literary works devoted to the study of problems of the lower-class people.

The Shortest Way with the Dissenters

  《铲除非国教教徒的捷径》

The True-born Englishman

《纯正出身的英格兰人》

The Review 《书评》

Robinson Crusoe (most famous of his work, his masterpiece)

Captain Singleton《辛格尔顿船长》

Moll Flanders《摩根.佛兰德斯》

Colonel Jack《杰克上校》

Roxana《罗克珊娜》

A Journal of the Plague Year. 《大疫年日记》

2. Characteristics of his works:

      Defoe was a very good story-teller. He had a gift for organizing minute details in such a vivid way that his stories could be both credible& fascinating.

      His sentences are sometimes short, crisp & plain, & sometimes long & rambling, which leave on the reader on impression of casual narration.

        His language is smooth, easy, colloquial & mostly vernacular. There is nothing artificial in his language: it is common English at its best.
  II. Jonathan Swift

1. Introduction

1He was poor himself all his life; that is why he was very sympathetic toward the poor and political corruption in his writings.

2He had a deep hatred for all the rich oppressors and a deep sympathy for all the poor and oppressed.

3His understanding of human nature is profound.

4He is making the most devastating protest against the inhuman exploitation and oppression of the Irish people by the English ruling class.

5The apparent eagerness, sincerity and detachment of the author adds force to the bitter irony and biting sarcasm.

2. Masterpieces

A Tale of a Tub (satirist) 《木桶的故事》

The Battle of the Books 《书籍之战》

The Examiner 《主考》

Gulliver’s Travels (his greatest satiric work) 《格列佛游记》
A Modest Proposal (more powerful) 《一个温和的建议》

The Drapier’s Letters《德拉皮尔之信》

3. Writing styles:

1Swift is a master satirist. His satire is usually masked by an out word gravity &an apparent earnestness which renders his satire all the more powerful.

2Swift is one of the greatest masters of English prose. He is almost unsurpassed in the writing of simple, direct, precise prose. He defined a good style as “proper words in proper places.” Clear, simple, concrete diction, uncomplicated sentence structure, economy & conciseness of language mark all his writings-essays, poems & novels.
III. Henry Fielding
1. Introduction:

1He first tried his luck in play writing

2During 9 years, he produces 26 plays

3He was poor himself all his life; That is why he was very sympathetic toward the poor and political corruption in his writings; he adopted “the third-person narration”

2. Contributions:

1Father of the English Novel—because of his contribution and establishment of the form of the modern novel

2Of all the eighteenth-century novelists he was the first to set out, both in theory and practice:

First: give the modern novel both its structure and its style.

Second: adopted the “third-person narration” in which the author became the all-knowing God.
3. Main works: The earlier essays:

The True Patriot and the Liberty of Our Own Times

The Jacobite’s Journal

The Convent-garden Journal

Plays:

The Coffee-House Politician

The Tragedy of Tragedies

Pasquin

The Historical Register for the Year 1736

Novels:

The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his friend Mr. Abraham Adams

The History of Jonathan Wild the Great

The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling –masterpiece on subject of human nature

The history of Amelia- a story of the unfortunate life of an idealized woman, a maudlin picture of the social life

4. Writing style:

The writing Tropism(取向)of his plays:

1witty comedies of manners or intrigues(诡计) in Restoration tradition

2farces(滑稽剧) or ballad operas with political implications(政治影射)

3burlesques( 闹 剧 ) and satires that bear heavily upon the status-quo( 现 状 ) of England

The writing Tropism of his novels: the ordinary and usually ridiculous (absurd) life of the common people, from the middle class to the underworld

The orientation(定位) of his novels:

Try to retain the grand epical form of the classical works but keep faithful to his realistic presentation of common life as it is

The object of his novels:

Not just to amuse but to instruct, and to present a faithful picture of life,” the just copy of human manners”

The writing characteristics:
1His language is easy, unlabored and familiar, but extremely vivid and vigorous.

2His sentences are always distinguished by logic and rhythm,

3His structure carefully planned towards and inevitable ending.

4His works are also noted for lively, dramatic dialogues and other theatrical devices such as suspense(悬念), coincidence(偶合) and unexpectedness(始料不及).

1. neoclassical adj. 新古典主义的 E.g. The great political and social events in the English society of neoclassical period were the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660, the Great Plague of 1665 and the Great London Fire in 1666. 新古典主义时期的政治和社会事件包括 1660 年查理二世的 王朝复辟;1665 年的大瘟疫，以及 1666 年的伦敦大火。
2. literature n. 文学;文献;文艺;著作 E.g. literature review 文献回顾;文献综述;文献评论 literature and art 文艺;文学与艺术 english literature 英国文学;英语文化 E.g. Are you majoring in English Literature? 你主修的是英国文学吗?

3. literary adj. 文学的;书面的;精通文学的 E.g. The novels of Daniel Defoe are the first literary works devoted to the study of problems of the lower--class people, such as Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack. 鲁滨逊的小说是首批描写底层人士的问题的文学作品，包括《辛格尔顿船长》《摩 尔·弗兰德斯 》《杰克上校》。

4.author n. 作者;作家;创始人 E.g. Haruki Murakami is Japan’s best-selling author.  村上春树是日本的畅销书作家。 E.g. Henry Fielding adopted the third-person narration to relate a story in a novel, in which the author becomes the “all- knowing God”.亨利·菲尔丁采用“第三人称叙述”， 来讲述小说中的故事，其中作者成为“全知的上帝”。

5. plot n. 情节;图;阴谋 vt. 密谋;绘图;划分;标绘 vi. 密谋;策划;绘制 E.g. Do you know the main plot of Robinson Crusoe? 你知道《鲁宾逊漂流记》的主要情节吗?

6. prose n. 散文;单调 adj. 散文的;平凡的;乏味的 E.g. As one of the greatest masters of English prose, Jonathan Swift defined a good style as “proper words in proper places.”作为英语散文的大师之一，乔纳森·斯威夫特认 为好的语言风格是“在恰当的地方用恰当的词。”

7. satire n. 讽刺;讽刺文学，讽刺作品 E.g. As a whole, Gulliver’s Travels is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life socially, politically,religiously,philosophically,scientifically,andmorally. 总的来说，《格列夫游记》是最有效和最具破坏性的批评，也是对当时英国和欧洲生活各个方面社会，政治， 宗教，哲学，科学和道德上的讽刺。

8. satiric adj. 讽刺的;挖苦的 E.g. Jonathan Swift’s greatest satiric work is A Modest Proposal, not only of the period but also in the whole English literary history. 《一个温和的建议》是乔纳森•斯威夫特最好的讽刺作品。不仅是这一时期讽刺的最佳例子，而且也是整个英国文学史上的典范。

9. structure n. 结构;构造;建筑物 E.g. Of all the eighteenth - century novelists, Henry Fielding was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a “comic epic in prose”, the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. 在十八世纪所有小说家中，亨利.菲尔丁第 一个在理论与实践上创造了“散文体喜剧史诗”，并第一个为现代小说确立了结构和风格。

10. enlightenment n. 启迪;启蒙运动;教化 E.g. The 18th-century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.18 世纪的英国被称为启蒙时代或者理性时代。

11. political adj. 政治的;党派的 E.g. As a whole, Gulliver’s Travels is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life socially, politically, religiously, philosophically, scientifically, and morally. 总的来说，《格列夫游记》是最有效和最具破坏性的批评，也是对当时英国和欧洲生活各个方面社会，政治， 宗教，哲学，科学和道德上的讽刺。

12. select vt. 挑选;选拔 adj. 精选的;挑选出来的;极好的 E.g. We have over 30 beautiful designs to select from.我们有 30 多种美丽的图案可供 选择。 E.g. selected reading 名篇选读

13. social adj. 社会的，社交的;群居的 E.g. Social Background 社会背景 Social achievement 社会成就 Social life 社会生活 E.g. Henry Fielding’s novel The History of Amelia is a masterpiece on the subject of the story of the unfortunate life of an idealized woman, a maudlin(伤感的) picture of the social life at the time.《阿米亚的故事》是以一个理想化的女人的不幸生活为题材的故 事，反映了当时社会生活的伤感图景。

14. absurd adj. 荒谬的;可笑的 n. 荒诞;荒诞作品 E.g. What an absurd idea! 多么荒唐的念头!  E.g. Henry Fielding tends to write the ordinary and usually ridiculous (absurd) life of the common people, from the middle class to the underworld.亨利菲尔丁倾向于写从中产阶级到下层社会的普通人的平凡和荒诞的生活。

15. artistic adj. 艺术的;风雅的;有美感的 E.g. artistic achievement 艺术成就 artistic value 艺术价值 ; 艺术性

16. background n. 背景;隐蔽的位置 E.g. Social Background 社会背景 Political Background 政治背景 cultural background 文化背景 educational background 学历;教育背景

17. bourgeois n. 资本家 adj. 资产阶级的;中产阶级的 E.g. The British bourgeois or middle class believed in self-reliance, self- restraint and hard work. 十八世纪晚期到十九世纪早期，英国的工业革命正在进行中，而工业革命的主角——英 国资产阶级自信，自强，自制的特点为其积累财富奠定了基础，也为英国文学发展的现 实主义奠定了基础。

18. devastating adj. 毁灭性的;全然的 v. 摧毁(devastate 的 ing 形 式);毁坏 E.g. Jonathan Swift’ s A Modest Proposal makes the most devastating protest(抗议) against the inhuman exploitation and oppression of the Irish people by the English ruling class. 乔纳森·斯威夫特《一个温和的建议》(以温和冷静的语言)强烈谴责了英国政府对爱尔兰的压迫以及不人道的剥削(文字“不温不火，绵里藏针”，颇能体现斯威夫特的讽刺 风格)。

19. masterpiece n. 杰作;绝无仅有的人 E.g. Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe is universally considered as his masterpiece. Friday is a character in the novel Robinson Crusoe. 《鲁滨逊漂流记》被公认为是丹尼尔笛福的杰作。Friday 是《鲁宾逊漂流记》中的人物。

20. narration n. 叙述，讲述;故事 E.g. Henry Fielding adopted the third-person narration to relate a story in a novel, in which the author becomes the “all- knowing God”.亨利·菲尔丁采用“第三人称叙述”， 来讲述小说中的故事，其中作者成为“全知的上帝”。

21. restoration n. 恢复;复位;王政复辟;归还 E.g. The great political and social events in the English society of neoclassical period were the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660, the Great Plague of 1665 and the Great London Fire in 1666. 新古典主义时期的政治和社会事件包括 1660 年查理二世的，王朝复辟;1665 年的大瘟疫，以及 1666 年的伦敦大火。

22. revolution n. 革命;旋转;运行;循环 E.g. Industrial revolution 工业革命 The Glorious Revolution in 1689 1689 年光荣革命

23. witty adj. 诙谐的;富于机智的 E.g. His plays were very good, very witty. 他的那些剧作非常好，非常诙谐。

24. philosophical adj. 哲学的;冷静的 E.g. As a whole, Gulliver’s Travels is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life socially, politically, religiously, philosophically, scientifically, and morally. 总的来说，《格列 夫游记》是最有效和最具破坏性的批评，也是对当时英国和欧洲生活各个方面社会，政 治，宗教，哲学，科学和道德上的讽刺。

25. sympathy n. 同情;慰问;赞同 E.g. Among the novelists of mid-eighteenth century, Daniel Defoe gave his praise to  unfortunate poor in most of his works. 在十八世纪中期的小说家中，笛福在大部分作 品中都表达了对勤劳的人和坚实的中产阶级的赞美以及对被压迫的和不幸的人们的同情。

跪求美国作家马克 吐温的英文介绍

作者介绍：马克吐温，（Mark Twain l835～1910）
美国作家。本名塞谬尔·朗赫恩·克莱门斯。马克·吐温是其笔名。出生于密西西比河畔小城汉尼拔的 一个乡村贫穷律师家庭，从小出外拜师学徒。当过排字工人，密西西比河水手、南军士兵，还经营过木材 业、矿业和出版业，但有效的工作是当记者和写作幽默文学。 马克·吐温是美国批判现实主义文学的奠基人，世界著名的短篇小说大师。他经历了美国从“自由”资 本主义到帝国主义的发展过程，其思想和创作也表现为从轻快调笑到辛辣讽刺再到悲观厌世的发展阶段。他 的早期创作，如短篇小说《竟选州长》（1870）、《哥尔斯密的朋友再度出洋》（1870）等，以幽默、诙谐 的笔法嘲笑美国“民主选举”的荒谬和“民主天堂”的本质。中期作品，如长篇小说《镀金时代》（1874，
与华纳合写）、代表作长篇小说《哈克贝里·费恩历险记》（1886）及《傻瓜威尔逊》（1893）等，则以深 沉、辛辣的笔调讽刺和揭露像瘟疫般盛行于美国的投机、拜金狂热，及暗无天日的社会现实与惨无人道的种 族歧视。《哈克贝里·费恩历险记》通过白人小孩哈克跟逃亡黑奴吉姆结伴在密西西比河流浪的故事，不仅 批判封建家庭结仇械斗的野蛮，揭露私刑的毫无理性，而且讽刺宗教的虚伪愚昧，谴责蓄奴制的罪恶，并歌 颂黑奴的优秀品质，宣传不分种族地位人人都享有自由权利的进步主张。作品文字清新有力，审视角度自然 而独特，被视为美国文学史上具划时代意义的现实主义著作。19世纪末，随着美国进入帝国主义发展阶段， 马克·吐温一些游记、杂文、政论，如《赤道环行记》（1897）、中篇小说《败坏了哈德莱堡的人》 （1900）、《神秘来客》（1916）等的批判揭露意义也逐渐减弱，而绝望神秘情绪则有所伸长。 马克·吐温被誉为“美国文学中的林肯”。他的主要作品已大多有中文译本。
The author introduce:Mark Twain, (Mark Twain l 835~1910)
American writer.The autonym fills Miu Er ·the boon of Lang He ·gram Lai door Si.Mark ·vomit is its pen name.It was born at side little city Hannibal of Mississippi’s a lawyer’s family with poor country, went out to do obeisance teacher apprentice since the childhood.When lead a typesetter, Mississippi sailor, south non-commissioned officer soldier, also once conducted the timber industry, mineral industry and the publish industry, but valid of the work be a reporter and write humor literature. Mark ·vomit is the United States to criticize realism literature of lay foundation stone a person, the short story master of Zhao in the world.He experienced the United States from the "freedom" property origin a doctrine to imperialistic of development process, its thought and creations also expresses for adjust to smile mordacity’s irony to arrive a pessimism cynical development stage again from the agility.His earlier period create, like short story 《unexpectedly choose eparch (1870)》, 《elder brother Er Si the airtight friend once more goes abroad (1870)》etc., with humor, humorous American"the democracy elect" of the style of writing derision of absurd with the essence of"democracy heaven".Middle work, like novel 《plate with gold ages 》(1874,
Match with Warner to write), representative work novel 《admire a gram a shell inside ·the fee boon go through dangers to record (1886)》and 《simpleton Pete Wilson (1893)》etc., then with deeply sink, mordacity of style of writing irony with make public to be like an epidemic sort widely accepted in the United States of speculation, do obeisance a gold wildly hot, and the social reality of complete darkness and cruelly grow a clan bias.《Admire gram shell inside ·the fee boon go through dangers to record 》pass white man a kid admire gram with flee from home a Negro slave Ji Mu to accompany the story which wanders about in Mississippi, not only criticize the barbarism that the feudalism family becomes enemies with a turf war, make public have no of lynch reasonableness, and irony religion of false ignorant, rebuke the Xu Nu system of crime, and the song Song Negro slave’s excellent quality, publicity not divide race position the everyone all possesses the progress assertion of free right.The work writing is delightfully fresh and emollient and examine angle natural and special, is see as the realism work of have the meaning of row the ages in American literary history.Turn into an imperialistic development stage along with the United States at the end of 19 centuries, mark ·vomit some swim to record, miscellaneous text, political commentary, such as 《wreath line in the equator record (1897)》, novelette 《corrupt admire virtuous Lai fortress of person (1900)》 , 《mysterious visitor (1916)》etc. of the judgment make public the meaning also dies down gradually, but the despair mysterious motion then has elongation. Mark ·vomit to be praise for"Lincoln in the American literature".His main work has already mostly had Chinese to translate an origin.
.

An essay about Walt Whitman

Walter Whitman (May 31, 1819–March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, journalist, and humanist. Proclaimed the "greatest of all American poets" by many foreign observers a mere four years after his death, he is viewed as the first urban poet. He was a part of the transition between Transcendentalism and Realism, incorporating both views in his works. His works have been translated into more than twenty-five languages. Whitman is among the most influential and controversial poets in the American canon. His work has been described as a "rude shock" and "the most audacious and debatable contribution yet made to American literature." As Whitman wrote in Leaves of Grass (By Blue Ontario’s Shore), "Rhymes and rhymers pass away...America justifies itself, give it time..."
Early life
Walter Whitman was born May 31, 1819 in West Hills, Long Island, to parents of Quaker background, Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman. He was the second of nine children. One of his siblings, born prior to him, did not make it past infancy. His mother was barely literate and of Dutch descent and his father was a Quaker carpenter. In 1823 the family moved to Brooklyn, where for six years Whitman attended public schools. It was the only formal education he ever received. His mother taught him the value of family ties, and Whitman remained devoted to his family throughout his life, becoming, in a real sense, its leader after the death of his father. Whitman inherited the liberal intellectual and political attitudes of a free thinker from his father, who exposed him to the ideas and writings of the socialists Frances Wright and Robert Dale Owen, the liberal Quaker Elias Hicks, and the deist Count Volney.
One advantage of living in Brooklyn was that Whitman saw many of the famous people of the day when they visited nearby New York City. Thus he saw President Andrew Jackson and Marquis de Lafayette.In what was one of Whitman’s favorite childhood stories Marquis de Lafayette visited New York and, selecting the six-year-old Walt from the crowd, lifted him up and carried him. Whitman came to view this event as a kind of laying on of hands: the French hero of the American Revolution anointing the future poet of democracy in the energetic city of immigrants where the nation was being invented day by day.
At age eleven he worked as an office boy for lawyers and a doctor, then in the summer of 1831 became a printer’s devil for the Long Island Patriot, a four-page weekly whose editor, Samuel L. Clements (NOT Samuel L. Clemens/ Mark Twain), shared the liberal political views of his father. It was here that Whitman first broke into print with "sentimental" bits of filler material. The following summer Whitman went to work for another printer, Erastus Worthington, and in the autumn he moved on to the shop of Alden Spooner, the most successful publisher-printer in Brooklyn. Although his family moved back to the area of West Hills in 1834, where another son, Thomas Jefferson, was born in July, Whitman stayed on in Brooklyn. He published a few pieces in the New York Mirror, attended the Bowery Theater, continued subscribing to a circulating library, and joined a local debating society. In his sixteenth year, Whitman moved to New York City to seek work as a compositor. But Whitman’s move was poorly timed: a wave of Irish immigrants had contributed to the already unruly behavior in the city’s streets; anti-abolitionist and anti-Irish riots often broke out; unemployment was high; and the winter was miserably cold. Whitman could not find satisfactory employment and, in May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught at various schools until the spring of 1838, when, with the financial support of friends, he began his own newspaper, the weekly Long Islander, in Huntington.
Whitman ’s stint as an independent newspaperman lasted until May 1839, when he sold the paper and his equipment and went again to New York. This time he was more fortunate, landing a job in Jamaica with James J. Brenton, editor of the Long Island Democrat. In 1841 he moved to New York City, working initially as a printer but ultimately as a journalist. His first important post was as editor of the New York Aurora in 1842. Throughout the 1840s he worked for more than a dozen New York City newspapers, including the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, where he was editor between 1846 and 1848. His position at the Eagle was abruptly terminated in part because of his disagreement with the newspaper’s owners over the wisdom of the Wilmot Proviso, which stated that all territories had to be admitted into the Union as free soil states. The fact that he started a free soil paper in 1849 reinforces the conclusion that Whitman left his New Orleans post partly for political reasons. Generally, Whitman’s position on slavery was that it was an evil, but so long as the Constitution made it legal, he believed that fugitive slave laws should be obeyed. He stated his views on slavery in a quasi-political treatise called The Eighteenth Presidency written between 1854 and 1856; although it was put into proof sheets, it was never published in Whitman’s lifetime. In his optimism for the power of American democracy, he hoped that the American people would voluntarily give up slavery rather than lose it through civil war.
His most famous work is Leaves of Grass, which he continued to edit and revise until his death and is considered his most personal and political work. A group of Civil War poems, included within Leaves of Grass, is often published as an independent collection under the name of Drum-Taps.
The first versions of Leaves of Grass were self-published and poorly received. Several poems featured graphic depictions of the human body, enumerated in Whitman’s innovative "cataloging" style, which contrasted with the reserved Victorian ethic of the period. Despite its revolutionary content and structure, subsequent editions of the book evoked critical indifference in the US literary establishment. Outside the US, the book was a world-wide sensation, especially in France, where Whitman’s intense humanism influenced the naturalist revolution in French letters. In 2000, the value of a copy of the first edition, which had sold for $35,000 in the 1990s, was cataloged with an estimated value of $50,000 - ­$70,000.
By 1865 Walt Whitman was world-famous, and Leaves of Grass had been accepted by a publishing house in the US. Though still considered an iconoclast and a literary outsider, the poet’s status began to grow at home. During his final years, Whitman became a respected literary vanguard visited by young artists. Several photographs and paintings of Whitman with a large beard cultivated a "Christ-figure" mystique. Whitman did not invent American transcendentalism, but he had become its most famous exponent and was also associated with American mysticism. In the twentieth century, young writers such as Hart Crane, William Carlos Williams, Allen Ginsberg, and Jack Kerouac rediscovered Whitman and reinterpreted his literary manifesto for a new audience.
Later life
Walt Whitman, circa 1860, by Mathew BradyWhitman began 1864 writing to various people for assistance. Of James Redpath, a Boston publisher, he asked unsuccessfully for help in publishing his accounts of Washington during the War, called "Memoranda of a Year." Other people were enlisted in an attempt to find Whitman a better paying job. John Trowbridge met with Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, to find Whitman a position in that department. Chase, a politically sensitive man, not only turned down Whitman because he had learned he was the author of a notorious book, but kept a letter of recommendation written by Emerson as well. During February-March 1864 Whitman visited the wounded at the front, boosting morale and passing out books for them to read. Worn out by all this activity, Whitman moved to Georgetown, Colorado in July, physically and emotionally exhausted.
The events of late 1864 did little to raise Whitman’s spirits. In October he found out that his brother George had been captured by the Confederacy after a battle; whether he was wounded and where he was held remained unknown. In December Whitman took his brother Jesse, whose mind had been deteriorating, to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum and committed him. Fortunately for Whitman , more positive events were taking place in Washington. In late December, O’Connor pleaded Whitman ’s case before W.T. Otto, Assistant Secretary of the Department of the Interior, and in January, Whitman was offered a low-level clerkship for, to Whitman, the more than adequate salary of $1,200 a year. Upon returning to Washington in January 1865, Whitman was assigned to the Indian Bureau division of the Interior Department. George, after being released from the Danville, Virginia, prisoner-of-war camp, returned home in March, and Whitman took a leave of absence to visit him. When he returned to Washington, Whitman was promoted to a clerkship one grade higher.
Whitman had not by any means stopped writing poetry during this period. He had, soon after the 1860 Leaves of Grass went into a second printing, begun work on a new volume of poetry, to be called Banners at Day-Break, but the failure of Thayer and Eldridge brought this plan to a halt. The verses intended for the aborted volume would find their way into the next edition of Leaves of Grass (on which Whitman was continually working) and into his next book, which would poetically comment on the Civil War.
In January 1865 Whitman was appointed a clerk in the Indian Affairs Department in Washington. By spring, not long after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, he was fired from his government post on the orders of Secretary of the Interior James Harlan. The charge was that Whitman was the author of a "dirty book," Leaves of Grass. Actually, Whitman’s dismissal was part of an efficiency campaign, but Harlan, formerly a professor of mental and moral science in Iowa, also objected strongly to Whitman’s emphasis on the body in his poetry. On 1 July, Ashton reinstated Whitman and transferred him to his own department. Whitman was relieved and his life returned to normal. O’Connor, though, was still upset and went about vindicating Whitman by publishing a biographical study, The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866. This book defended both Whitman and artistic freedom and is especially interesting today because Whitman himself had a major role in preparing it.
Over the next few years Whitman continued to work on his poetry, and in 1871 a number of works were published. Roberts Brothers of Boston published After All, Not to Create Only (later called "Song of the Exposition"), a poem which celebrated the opening of the National Industrial Exposition in New York on 7 September 1871. Whitman had been invited by the organizing committee and was paid $100 for his work, which he read in person on opening day. In the same year appeared Democratic Vistas, Whitman ’s prose comments on the role of the poet in shaping both America’s and humanity’s destinies, and the importance of democracy as an element in the formation of character. Also in 1871 Whitman published Passage to India, which praised the completion of the Suez Canal, the laying of the Atlantic cable, and the finishing of the transcontinental railroad.
In 1873, Whitman suffered a stroke while working and living in Washington, D. C. He never completely recovered, but continued to write poetry. He lived his final years at his home on Mickle Street in Camden, New Jersey, revising Leaves of Grass and receiving visitors, including Oscar Wilde.
After his stroke, his fame grew substantially both at home and abroad. Mostly it was stimulated by several prominent British writers criticizing the American academy for not recognizing Whitman’s talents. These included William Rossetti and Anne Gilchrist. At this time in his life, Whitman also had a prominent group of national and international disciples, including Canadian writer and physician Richard Bucke.
During his later years, Whitman ventured out on only two significant journeys: to Colorado in 1879 and to Boston to visit Emerson in 1881. Whitman died on March 26, 1892, and was buried in Camden’s Harleigh Cemetery.
Although Whitman left Long Island at age 22, he is still much revered there and especially in his native Huntington, where a large shopping mall, high school and major road are all named in his honor. The oldest newspaper on Long Island, The Long Islander, touts that it was "founded by Walt Whitman". Camden and the surrounding area also honor the poet. The Walt Whitman Bridge spans the Delaware River, linking Philadelphia and southern New Jersey, and the Walt Whitman Center at Rutgers-Camden hosts poets, plays and other events. Additionally, a statue of Whitman can be found in the campus center.
作品
Leaves of Grass
In 1855, Whitman took it upon himself to publish his first edition of Leaves of Grass. The next year he released his second edition of Leaves of Grass in 1856 with around 20 new poems. In 1860 Whitman released his third edition of Leaves of Grass, which was the first major revision and edition to his work. Whitman in 1870 added “Drum-Taps”, “Sequel to Drum-Taps”, and “Songs before Parting” to Leaves of Grass, which made this edition the first to properly address the Civil War through Whitman’s eyes. In 1881 Whitman was able to purchase his final home because of the revenue generated from the 1881 edition of Leaves of Grass. The final edition, called the deathbed edition, was released in 1892, bringing Leaves of Grass to its current state.
The public response to Leaves of Grass was initially mixed. The first notice, probably written by Charles A. Dana, in the New York Daily Tribune, complained of "a somewhat too oracular strain" and of language that is "too frequently reckless and indecent ... quite out of place amid the decorum of modern society." Nevertheless, "no impartial reader can fail to be impressed with the vigor and faint beauty of isolated portions." In short, "the taste of not overdainty fastidiousness will discern much of the essential spirit of poetry beneath an uncouth and grotesque embodiment." Charles Eliot Norton, writing in Putnam’s Monthly, was not at all impressed with this "curious and lawless collection of poems ... are neither in rhyme or blank verse, but in a sort of excited prose broken into lines without any attempt at measure or regularity, and, as many readers will perhaps think, without any idea of sense or reason." Leaves of Grass is ultimately dismissed as a "superficial yet profound ... preposterous yet somehow fascinating ... mixture of Yankee Transcendentalism and New York rowdyism." The debate was beginning
Song of Myself
Song of Myself was originally published in the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass in which it was the first of twelve poems. At the time this poem was untitled, but in 1856 Whitman titled this work “Poem of Walt Whitman: An American”. “Poem of Walt Whitman: An American” was divided into 52 numbered sections in 1867, which is how the poem is organized to this day. Then in 1881 Whitman decided to give the poem its final name: Song of Myself。
“Song of Myself is a history of the poet’s movement from loafing individual to active spirit. But the poet’s movement is paralleled by the reader’s movement from “assuming” to “resuming” and the poet controls both movements in the poem with the catalogues.”
Drum-Taps
In May 1865 Walt began printing his Civil War literature entitled, Drum-Taps. Shortly after beginning his printing of Drum-Taps Whitman pauses, and begins writing the sequel in order to add in When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d and O Captain! My Captain! in remembrance of President Lincoln, whom Whitman was very fond of. In late 1865 Whitman concluded his work on Drum-Taps and Sequel, and began printing them for distribution.
Drum-Taps represents yet another shift in Whitman’s poetry. In the first two editions, the focus was on the self and its transcendent powers; in the third edition--with such seashore poems as "Out of the Cradle" and "As I Ebb’d with the Ocean of Life"--the poet exchanged the representative ego for a recognition that life has its human limits that the poet must also celebrate, somehow exorcising the bad from the good. In his third phase, he shifts the attention from the self of the first editions to the Christ figure in others. This is brought to its richest fruition in Whitman’s elegy for Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d." What is remarkable about the poem is its revitalization of Whitman’s original powers as a poet.

Linux Make问题

修改它的环境变量试试，下面是有关文章，你看看。
gcc环境变量
1.运行时动态库的搜索路径
方法一：在配置文件/etc/ld.so.conf中指定动态库搜索路径
方法二：通过环境变量LD_LIBRARY_PATH指定动态库搜索路径（当通过该环境变量指定多个动态库搜索路径时，路径之间用冒号"："分隔）
方法三：在编译目标代码时指定该程序的动态库搜索路径（还可以在编译目标代码时指定程序的动态库搜索路径.
这是通过gcc 的参数"-Wl,-rpath,"指定（如例3所示）.当指定多个动态库搜索路径时，路径之间用冒号"："分隔）
四：默认的动态库搜索路径/lib
五：默认的动态库搜索路径/usr/lib
动态库的搜索路径搜索的先后顺序是：
(1).编译目标代码时指定的动态库搜索路径；
(2).环境变量LD_LIBRARY_PATH指定的动态库搜索路径；
(3).配置文件/etc/ld.so.conf中指定的动态库搜索路径；
(4).默认的动态库搜索路径/lib；
(5).默认的动态库搜索路径/usr/lib.
2※预处理(preprocessing),编译(compilation),汇编(assembly)和连接(linking)
※include的header文件,连结数据库，系统定义，总共有下列来源指定gcc去那找.
当初在编译时指定的(在~gcc/gcc/collect2.c:locatelib()
写在specs内的
后来用-D -I -L指定的
gcc环境变量设定(编译的时候)
ld.so的环境变量(这是run time的时候）
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1
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1.头文件
gcc 在编译时如何去寻找所需要的头文件 ：
※所以header file的搜寻会从-I开始
※然后找gcc的环境变量 C_INCLUDE_PATH,CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH,OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH
※再找内定目录
/usr/include
/usr/local/include
/usr/lib/gcc-lib/i386-linux/2.95.2/include
/usr/lib/gcc-lib/i386-linux/2.95.2/../../../../include/g++-3
/usr/lib/gcc-lib/i386-linux/2.95.2/../../../../i386-linux/include
库文件但是如果装gcc的时候，是有给定的prefix的话，那么就是
/usr/include
prefix/include
prefix/xxx-xxx-xxx-gnulibc/include
prefix/lib/gcc-lib/xxxx-xxx-xxx-gnulibc/2.8.1/include
2.库文件
cos()等函式库的选项要多加 -lm
编译的时候:
※gcc会去找-L
※再找gcc的环境变量LIBRARY_PATH
※再找内定目录 /lib /usr/lib /usr/local/lib 这是当初compile gcc时写在程序内的
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2
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝2.利用Linux系统上已有的开发库
(1).查看库文件提供了哪些调用
可以用nm命令自己查看库文件提供了哪些调用
(2).通过头文件查看函数的定义
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3
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3.gcc选项
总体选项 (Overall Option) ：（-c（生成目标但不连接） -S（汇编） -E（预处理） -o file（生成指定的文件） -pipe -v（显示过程） -x language （设定文件所使用的语言,使后缀名无效`c’, 可用参数`objective-c’, `c-header’, `c++’, `cpp-output’, `assembler’, and `assembler-with-cpp’））
语言选项 (LANGUAGE OPTIONS) ：（-ansi 只支持 ANSI 标准的 C 语法.这一选项将禁止 GNU C 的某些特色）
预处理器选项 (Preprocessor Option) ：（-Aassertion -C -dD -dM -dN -Dmacro -E -H -idirafter dir -include file -imacros file -iprefix file -iwithprefix dir -M -MD -MM -MMD -nostdinc -P -Umacro 相当于C语言中的#undef macro -undef -DMACRO 以字符串“1”定义 MACRO 宏, -DMACRO=DEFN 以字符串“DEFN”定义 MACRO 宏）
汇编器选项 (ASSEMBLER OPTION) ：（-Wa,option ）
连接器选项 (LINKER OPTION) ：（-llibrary -nostartfiles -nostdlib -static -shared -symbolic -Xlinker option -Wl,option -u symbol ）
目录选项 (DIRECTORY OPTION) ：（-Bprefix -Idir -I- -Ldir）
警告选项 (WARNING OPTION) ：（-w 不生成任何警告信息，-Wall 生成所有警告信息）
调试选项 (DEBUGGING OPTION) ：（-a -dletters -fpretend-float -g -glevel -gcoff -gxcoff -gxcoff+ -gdwarf -gdwarf+ -gstabs -gstabs+ -ggdb -p -pg -save-temps -print-file-name=library -print-libgcc-file-name -print-prog-name=program ）
优化选项 (OPTIMIZATION OPTION) ：（-O0不进行优化处理，-O或-O1优化生成代码 -O2进一步优化 -O3比-O2更进一步优化，包括inline函数）
目标机选项 (TARGET OPTION) ：（-b machine -V version ）
机器相关选项 (MACHINE DEPENDENT OPTION）：（-m486 针对 486 进行代码优化）
代码生成选项 (CODE GENERATION OPTION) ：(-fpic -fPIC)